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Publications
We like to keep important topics affecting
our world close at hand. We will post news,
articles, comments, and other publications
from our students and other contributors.
LATIN AMERICAN HISTORY
“The Colombian conflict in historical
perspective :
the evolution of the land issue“
By: Roberto Mignone all rights reserved
Introduction
The conflict in Colombia has been ravaging
the country for the last four decades but
its roots are traceable for a much longer
period.
According
to various analysts, the key issue at the
core of the conflict originally was, and
for many still is, the extremely unfair
distribution of land.
This
paper will analyze how land distribution
has been a very conflictive issue within
the Colombian society since the beginning
of the colonial era. It will focus on the
evolution of the problem and how it remained
unsolved and even worsened in spite of several
attempts of land reform. The main events
characterizing the development of the land
issue in Colombia contain certain patterns,
discussed in this paper, which to a large
extent are still valid today.
The
relationship between land distribution and
the origin of the current conflict is still
a controversial issue for some analysts.
Most
of these analysts identify a clear relationship
between land distribution and conflict:
“The basic antagonism between peasants
and landlords has nowhere been resolved…many
contemporary conflicts represent at once
a continuation and a transformation of earlier
struggles “.
This
is “ … a crisis whose underlying
causes, specifically the long standing quest
for land reform by campesinos… “.
Others
do not consider the current conflict as
being directly related to the historical
inequality in the distribution of land :
“… Nor can the uneven distribution
of wealth and income, so typical of Latin
America, be cited as the primary cause of
the recent violence … but rather the
impact of drug trafficking and the traditional
fragmentation of power… “
The
current situation of land distribution will
also be focused on as it can be considered
the result of the historical process analyzed
more in details.
The
role of the illegal armed actors and more
recently of the drug lords, will be analyzed
in order to demonstrate how the spiral of
violence has become a cycle in which poor
peasants not only fail to improve their
precarious situation, but in fact end up
losing everything they owned, in particular
the small plots of land, by being forced
into displacement.
Description
Various
economic and social indicators in Colombia
express the serious inequality of distribution
of wealth and other resources: 1 % of the
population controls 45 % of the wealth.
The top 10 % of the families owns 56 % of
the country resources. In rural areas 86
% of the population is poor and rural poverty
is actually increasing in the last years.
Nevertheless
the most impressive indicators of this inequality
relate directly to the distribution of land
: 3 % of landowners own more than 70 % of
the arable land; 30 percent of property
owners control about 95 % of the best land.
In 1996, 0.13 % of the landowners owned
39.23 % of the land, through estates larger
than 1.000 hectares.
As
a result of this concentration, 75 % of
potential crop land is currently underutilized
as the land is used mainly for pasture.
This
situation has its roots in the history of
the settlement of the country from colonial
times : before the arrival of the Spanish
Conquistadors all the indigenous groups
in the territory which is now Colombia had
a collective ownership of the land, which
was owned by the community.
In
the colonial period ( 1492 – 1810
), when Colombia was known as Nueva Grenada,
the main use of the land was not for agriculture
but for extracting minerals and other resources
to ship to motherland Spain. Indigenous
people and later African slaves were forced
to work in the mines.
Land
however was also regarded as a symbol of
political power: one of the elements which
shaped the distribution of land in Colombia
was the assignation by the King of Spain
of immense extensions of land, tens of thousands
of hectares each, to the Conquistadors.
These concessions were made through a mechanism
referred to as “ regla de morada y
labor “, as in theory the owner was
supposed to “live ( morada ) and work
( labor ) ” there. In reality it was
again African and indigenous slaves who
were working the vast extensions of the
best land available.
As
of the sixteenth century, marginalized groups
such as escaped Afro-Colombian slaves, mulatos,
mestizos and other poor farmers without
land began the migration towards remote
areas where land was available. In these
regions the State was absent and basic infrastructure
unheard of. This settlement process often
occurred at the expense of the local indigenous
groups. Fernán Gonzalez, a researcher
of Colombian political history, defines
the process as “an escape route from
the tensions created by highly concentrated
rural land ownership “.
Interestingly
even today in the most remote regions of
Colombia one can find the descendants of
the same actors, indigenous people, Afro-Colombians,
and poor subsistence farmers, with similar
dynamics (absence of the State and of most
infrastructure and widespread violence).
Where the best land and infrastructure is
available, often it is the traditional elite
families who own today even larger concentrations
of land ( along with the more recent ownership
by drug lords ).
In
the following historical phase, the struggle
for independence from Spain
( obtained in 1810 ) contributed to the
increasing in the unequal distribution of
land, as vast extensions of public land
were assigned by the new government to militaries
who had fought the independence war.
In
certain cases, the land was formally property
of the State ( baldío ) but had in
fact already been colonized by poor peasants
who had no formal legal title for it. The
Liberal Party member Alejandro Lopez I.C.
described this situation as “la lucha
entre el hacha y el papel sellado “
( the struggle between the hoax and the
stamped legal papers ).
Several
attempts at redressing the inbalance in
ownership of land through land distribution
were made throughout the nineteenth century.
These attempts were never successful and
often even worsened the situation.
For
instance in the period from 1851 to 1881,
1.301.122 hectares of State land
( baldíos ) were adjudicated to companies,
private landowners and farmers. However,
only 6.066 hectares ( or 0.46 % ) were assigned
to small farmers who would cultivate it
directly.
Another
important process relating to land in Colombia
in this period was the so-called “colonization
“: in 1850, approximately 75 % of
the land was still public land and open
to large migrations and settlement by peasants
in frontier lowlands. They created small
family farms but normally failed to obtain
any legal title. When, at a later stage,
investors acquired the title from the state,
the settlers were turned into tenants.
At
the beginning of the twentieth century,
the high concentration of land and the conditions
of extreme poverty of most peasants led
to the creation of organized movements of
protest : the first agrarian trade union
was founded in Colombia in 1913 in Colosó,
Bolivar department, by a school teacher.
Then
in the 1920s more political movements were
created or consolidated to give voice to
the landless peasants who called for land
redistribution. Some of these movements
were socialist “currents” which
later turned in the Communist Party of Colombia.
Others were sectors of the Liberal Party,
like the one led by Jorge Eliecer Gaitán.
Violent
confrontations between these movements and
the state forces took place in many regions,
particularly in Magdalena, Cundinamarca,
Tolima and around the Atlantic Coast.
During
the period 1930 to 1946 Liberal Party-run
administrations made various attempts at
land reform .
For
instance in 1936 during the government of
Alfonso López Pumarejo, legislation
on the land reform was approved ( Ley 200
de 1936 ). The objective of this legislation
was to regularize land titles and to implement
the principle that those who really work
the land should be the legitimate owners.
Squatters and tenants could apply for free
grants of land they were living and working
on, if the landlords could not prove legal
ownership.
The
landowners, backed by the Conservative Party,
reacted by forcing the expulsion of many
peasants from the land that they owned.
Landless peasants, again as a cycle, were
forced towards the colonization of unclaimed
frontier in remote regions.
These
attempts of social, economic and political
modernizing reforms by the Liberal Party
and the absolute and fierce opposition by
the Conservative Party created a climate
of extreme polarization which exploded in
widespread political violence.
In
the late 1940s, Liberal leader Jorge Eliécer
Gaitán, who had emerged from the
Liberal and communist led agrarian reform
movements, was a popular presidential candidate.
On April 9, 1948 he was assassinated. His
murder provoked a popular uprising and explosions
of violence throughout the country
( in the capital, the city looting which
took place is remembered as the Bogotazo:
much of the city was destroyed and 2.000
people were killed ).
This
event is regarded by many analysts as an
important turning point in Colombian history:
the Conservative Party started a wave of
terror to repress the popular insurgence,
as well as took the occasion to legitimize
the systematic repression against various
kind of social movements.
The
next decade is known as “La Violencia
“( the Violence ) and claimed the
life of between 200.000 to 300.000 Colombians.
Rural violence spread in the country, especially
in rural departments as around 20.000 combatants
were fighting in the name of the Liberals
and the Conservatives. Clashes also occurred
between Liberal and Communist guerrillas
and the violence strengthened the traditional
parties “as the collective identities
derived from membership were all that gave
violence a meaning “. Fernan Gonzalez
describes the phenomenon as “atomization
of campesinos “.
Meanwhile
in 1953 General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla took
power and this was the only period of military
rule in Colombia in the twentieth century.
In
order to end the conflict and the dictatorship,
Conservatives and Liberals in 1958 concluded
a pact known as the “National Front”:
for the next sixteen years they divided
the positions of state power between them.
This became a shared monopoly of power which
prevented the political expression of other
parties, increased corruption and impeded
the adequate addressing of unresolved key
issues, such as the structure of land ownership
and its distribution.
In
the meantime, towards the end of the period
of “la Violencia “, many Liberal
and Communist peasants had survived the
military offensives undertaking long marches
and then establishing themselves in remote
new lands, particularly in Meta and Caqueta’
departments. There they declared “Independent
Republics “, but new military attacks
forced the peasants deeper into the jungles.
These
armed peasants movements dispersed to various
regions of the country establishing several
fronts of confrontation with the state army.
In particular the “Independent Republics
“ of Marulanda and of Arenas were
attacked in 1964 with 16.000 soldiers by
land and by air. Some 43 guerrillas, including
Marulanda, who is to this day the leader
of FARC ( known as Tirofijo, Sureshot ),
fled to the mountains of Cauca department.
On
20 July 1964, the various fronts issued
a joint agrarian reform program. In 1966,
they officially became the FARC, Fuerzas
Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Colombia’s
Revolutionary Armed Forces).
Other
guerrillas groups, such the ELN ( Ejercito
de Liberación Nacional , National
Liberation Army ), of Cuban inspiration,
and the EPL ( Ejercito Popular de Liberación
Popular, Popular Liberation Army ), of Maoist
tendencies also emerged in the mid sixties.
These
groups are still active today and are among
the main actors of the four decade - long
civil conflict in Colombia.
The
other main actor of the current conflict
emerged as a reaction to the advances of
the FARC: the paramilitary groups, also
known as Self Defence Groups ( AUC, Autodefensas
Unidas de Colombia ) since the early nineties
are the fastest growing illegal armed actor
in Colombia. Among the main promoters and
financiers of these groups are rich landowners
that feel threatened by FARC.
General
Analysis and Discussion
The
situation described above through the main
events characterizing the evolution of the
land issue in Colombia contains certain
patterns which to a large extent are still
valid today, after more than five hundred
years.
Certain
groups of people have been marginalized
since the dawn of the colonial times: for
instance indigenous peoples whose land,
owned collectively, was confiscated first
by authorities of Nueva Grenada, the colony,
then by the government arising out of independence.
Their land was assigned by these authorities
to rich landowners in certain regions.
In
other more remote areas, the colonization
process above described as an indirect effect
( “escape route for poor farmers”
) of the vast concentration of the best
land in the hands of few elite families,
also victimized the indigenous peoples who
originally lived on those “colonized
“ land.
Similarly
the black slaves and their descendents,
when escaping from the plantations in coffee
growing regions, hid and then settled in
indigenous areas, such as Chocó department,
which today has a predominance of Afro-colombians.
These
traditional inequalities and conflicts were
aggravated, as described above, during the
period known as “La Violencia “.
Some analysts have interpreted these events
as violence deliberately intended by large
landowners to force peasants to abandon
their lands thereby creating a cheap land
market.
Others
regard the phenomenon as an effort by the
political and social elite to reinforce
the control over the campesinos in order
to eliminate land reform movements.
One
of the masterpieces of Colombian literature,
“Siervo sin Tierra “ ( Siervo
without land ), composed by Eduardo Caballero
Calderón, describes the odyssey of
a family of poor peasants in the Boyacá
department during this period. The deep
aspiration of this family for a piece of
land; the polarization between the two parties,
Conservatives and Liberals at the local
level; and the disorientation of Siervo
the peasant, dragged into the spiral of
violence with the hope ( then completely
frustrated, as he ends up loosing the little
he owned ) of finally obtaining a small
plot of land on his own, are the main themes
of this powerful book, which is still studied
in Colombian schools.
The
origins of the two main parties which have
dominated the political landscape in Colombia
for many decades, show that the Liberal
Party started as a heterogeneous coalition
of golgotas ( merchants supporting free
trade ), draconianos ( artisans and manufacturers
supporting protectionism ) and smaller landowners.
The
Conservative Party on the other hand expressed
the interests of large landowners and of
the Catholic clergy ( the Church has traditionally
been a very large landowner itself in most
of Latin America).
Interestingly,
peasants traditionally tended to support
the party for which their landowners ( patróns
) sympathized, rather than the one which
may have expressed more closely their interests.
The above mentioned book, “Siervo
sin Tierra “, describes impressively
this phenomenon, which helps to explain
the intensity of rural political conflict.
Following
the pattern mentioned above, the same marginalized
groups today remain vulnerable, are manipulated
by different actors or are caught in rural
conflicts. Most of their plight appears
to be still related to the issue of land.
For
instance indigenous peoples, in spite of
the legal protection given by the Colombian
Constitution of 1991 and by international
human rights instruments, remain a proportionally
high number among the groups most affected
by forced displacement. So today, their
land is still threatened as some analysts
estimate that nearly 80 % of the mineral
and energy resources of the country are
located in the 27 % of the territory which
is collectively and inalienably owned by
indigenous communities.
Similar
considerations are valid also for Afro-Colombians
and other poor farmers, who to this day
live in remote regions where the state is
absent, where infrastructure is lacking
or is inadequate, and where they have no
access to the markets for outputs and no
access to credit .
In
these regions the illegal actors of the
armed conflict have de facto control of
the territory. Peasants are often displaced
by the violence of these actors, who often
are ( in particular the paramilitaries )
interested in their lands.
The
origins of these illegal actors involved
in the current internal conflict appear
to be rooted directly in ( FARC ), or are
indirectly ( AUC ) related to, the unresolved
issue of land distribution.
While
some analysts regard the origins of ELN
and EPL in movements led by urban intellectuals,
in contrast the peasants’ roots of
FARC are generally acknowledged. Alfredo
Molano considers that FARC “is deeply
rooted in a legacy of class conflict …
seeing that it would be impossible to break
through the rigid political and agrarian
structures using legal means, the opposition
declared an armed rebellion “.
The
subsequent evolution of the FARC during
these last decades, including its more recent
links with narco-traffic and its violent
actions in disregard of basic principles
of International Humanitarian Law, have
led many analysts, both Colombians and foreigners,
to question FARC’s current real objectives,
priorities and strategies.
AUC,
like their mortal enemy FARC, have also
shown a total disregard for International
Humanitarian Law and are considered the
main actor provoking internal forced displacement,
which in fact results in an even higher
concentration of land ( defined by some
as “contrareforma agraria”,
agrarian counter-reform ). They also have
clear links with narco-traffic.
These
are legitimate questions regarding both
groups, however their modus operandi or
current real main objectives are not the
focus of this paper.
Actualization
It
may be interesting to have a closer look
at the current situation of land distribution
in Colombia as the result of the historical
process the paper has focused on.
The
agriculture sector today is not as important
as it was in the past. Nevertheless it still
accounts for 21 percent of national income,
20 percent of employment and 36 percent
of merchandise export revenues , especially
through coffee.
The
State organization currently in charge of
redistribution of land is INCORA, Instituto
Colombiano de Reforma Agraria ( Colombian
Agrarian Reform Institute).
INCORA
was created in 1961 through Law 135. Some
regarded its creation and its potential
role in land redistribution as an effective
counterinsurgency tool , as it may have
contributed to defuse social and political
tensions related to the inequality in land
ownership.
Although
INCORA’s resources were significant
( for instance 140 million USD was the average
annual budget in the late 80s ), most was
spent on bureaucracy ( the administrative
cost of transferring land was about 50 %
of the total land reform budget in the early
90s ) and it had very little impact on the
ground.
Nor
were these resources allocated in an equitable
way to really target rural poverty: the
World Bank reports that in 1994 the lowest
quintile and the highest quintile of the
rural population benefited to the same extent
from these programs.
In
this period, an estimated 200.000 families
had no farm land, while 750.000 families
did not have enough land for an adequate
living.
The
structure of the land ownership remains
highly concentrated and as a result also
underutilized : low productivity livestock
production covers 35 % of land in Colombia
( while only 13 % is considered suitable
for this use ). By contrast, crop farming,
with higher productivity rates only takes
place in 4 % of land ( while 16 % of Colombian
land would be suitable ).
Small
land is also often of poor quality and peasants
have difficulties getting access to credit
and as a consequence to seeds, fertilizers
and other assets which could improve the
production. Most peasants are caught in
a poverty trap, a cycle where the small
size of the land limits profits, but they
cannot buy more land because of the same
too limited profits.
Other
more recent phenomena have contributed to
an even higher concentration of land: on
the one side the use of land to launder
money that was acquired by drug lords; on
the other the massive forced displacement
of peasants due to the conflict. Moreover
the two processes are often related.
According
to some estimates, drug lords have purchased
more than a million hectares of the best
land , but most of it is underutilized as
pasture or are not utilized at all.
On
the other hand, reports show that 70 % of
the forcibly displaced people ( more than
three millions persons in total , over 1.000
per day in 2002 ) have lost their land,
which is often occupied or bought cheaply
by drug traffickers or other estate land
owners.
Displacement
is also significantly more pronounced in
areas where political violence coincides
with violence associated with land ownership.
So
the conflict has its roots in the unequal
distribution of the land, and in turn the
conflict itself, through the displacement
of peasants, contributes to the aggravation
of such a phenomenon.
General recommendations
When
analyzing the current conflict, and when
trying to prevent one of its worse manifestations,
which is internal displacement , it is important
to keep the historical perspective into
account.
This
paper focuses on some of the main events
characterizing Colombian history since the
colonization period and it highlights how
the issue of the land has very often been
the main reason for tensions and conflicts.
Even
today, some illegal armed groups, such as
the guerillas, claim to fight mainly for
a more equal distribution of land while
others, such as the paramilitaries, do in
turn mainly protect the interest of landowners.
The
conflicts at the local level which produce
displacement may not always be directly
related to strategic military reasons, but
more often to an economic interest in evicting
by force peasants from the land.
Understanding
these dynamics can help predict the strategic
moves of the illegal armed actors and therefore
design a more effective prevention and protection
strategy.
The
main recommendation of this paper is that
all the actors involved in Colombia in preventing
or mitigating the impact of the armed conflict
( be them state actors or non governmental
organizations ; national or international
), must be constantly aware of the root
causes of the conflict and of how these
can influence its current dynamics and prospects
for solutions.
Conclusion
The
Colombian conflict has deep and complex
roots which are mainly related to the land
issue. Since the time when the system of
collective property of land by indigenous
peoples was destroyed by the colonization
process, the phenomenon of concentration
of land in the hands of a limited number
of elite families has only increased.
Most
attempts to address the issue, either by
the authorities through limited land reforms,
or by peasants movements through political
and social pressure, have generally backlashed
through the reaction of landowners which
often generated in turn an even stronger
concentration of land.
In
the current context, the situation of land
concentration has been further complicated
and worsened by the role played by drug
lords, who purchase vast extension of land,
in many cases land which had to be abandoned
by peasants forcibly displaced through the
violence of the illegal armed groups involved
in the conflict.
The
spiral of violence has become a cycle in
which poor peasants not only do not improve
their precarious situation, but in fact
end up losing everything they owned, in
particular the small plots of land, by being
forced into displacement.
The
odyssey of the poor farmer Siervo, described
in the masterpiece of Colombian literature
“Siervo sin Tierra “ , is still
reproduced daily in today’s rural
Colombia…
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