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Domingos Henrique Cabinda Bachelor of Management Hospital Management Angola |
Anson Amin Brackett Master of Education Educational Leadership and Administration Belize |
Nancy Edna Petersen Groc Doctor of Education Educational Research Bolivia |
Mmoloki Moreo Doctor of Education Education Botswana |
Rivadavio de Barros Gico Junior Doctor of Theology Theology Brazil |
Eduardo Lourenço Viana Doctor of Philosop hy Legal Studies Brazil |
Jack Fernandes dos Santos Netto Doctor of Science International Relations Brazil |
Eboule Emmanuel Doctor of International Relations International Relations Cambo dia |
Akum Damarise Anne Master of Project Management Project Management Cameroo n |
Lerato Emily Mahata Moshabesha Doctor of Science Political Science Canada |
Nadia Cruz Molina Doctor of Business Administration Leadership and Coaching Canada |
Eliana Carmen Peña Astudillo Doctor of Political Science Political Science Chile |
Jonathan Ominyi Ahulo Doctor of Science Information Technology China |
John Freddy Benavides Urueña Bachelor of Science Industrial Engineering Colombia |
Sara Patricia Arce Moya Doctor of Science Political Science Costa Rica |
Nick Ahmady Doctor of Psychology Clinical Psychology Denmark |
Dicaury Antonia Frias Muriel Bachelor of Science Psychology Dominican Republic |
Jose Andrés Alcantara Ramírez Doctor of Philosop hy Human Resources Dominican Republic |
Madeline Bernard Bachelor of Business Administration Business Administration Dominican Republic |
Manuel Jesus Muriel Contreras Bachelor of Theology Theology Dominican Republic |
Wilfrid Brunache Bachelor of Business Administration Business Administration Dominican Republic |
Luis R. Herrera Almonte Doctor of Science National Security and Defense Dominican Republic |
Yudy Altagracia Hilario Ventura Bachelor of Science Psychology Dominican Republic |
Patricia Indhira Céspedes Sención Master of Human Resources Human Resources Dominican Republic |
Santiago Fernando Moya Lopez Bachelor of Science Civil Engineering Ecuador |
José Wilfredo Agreda Coto Master of Business Administration International Business El Salvador |
Fianla Guy Marcel Doctor of Philosop hy Information Systems Equatorial Guinea |
Salisu Badamasi Bachelor of Public Administration Business Management Germany |
Tim Berger Doctor of Science Chemical Engineering Germany |
Wisdom Dzikunu Bachelor of Science Information Technology Ghana |
Victor Dennis Philip Master of Science Renewable Energy Engineering Grenada |
José Alejandro Chinchilla Pérez Post-Doctorate of Science Information Technology and Management Guatemala |
Eder Sogel Campos Gómez Bachelor of Business Administration Business Administration and Management Guatemala |
Carmen Beatriz González Sandoval Bachelor of Arts Plastic Arts Guatemala |
Derrick Nwunembom Nkwain Master of Science Business Management Guinea |
Dianka Toumane Master of Disaster Management Emergency and Disaster Risk Management Haiti |
Mackenson Noel Master of Science Artificial Intelligence Haiti |
Hector Manuel Aguilar Mendez Doctor of Legal Studies Legal Studies Honduras |
Genny Yolany Torres Torres Doctor of Management Project Management Honduras |
José Raynieri Estrada Guzmán Bachelor of Science Civil Engineering Honduras |
Dr. Székely Zoltán Doctor of Philosop hy Business Management Hungary |
Venugopal Gandikota Bachelor of Science Civil Engineering India |
Livnat Halel Buhnik Doctor of Science Health Science Israel |
Natalie Irving-Mattocks Doctor of Science Public Health Jamaica |
Johoan Chambers Blackwood Doctor of Education Education Jamaica |
Loleita Stewart-Russell Master of Arts Educational Leadership Jamaica |
Ricardo Olueda Hemmings Doctor of Science Human Resource Management Jamaica |
Shorna Newsome-Myrie Doctor of Science Counselling Psychology Jamaica |
Nursulu Boranbaykyzy Master of Science Oil, Gas and Energy Engineering Kazakhstan |
Pascalia Felistas Epaalat Bachelor of Science Reproductive Health Kenya |
James Kimaiyo Bungei Doctor of Education Educational Policy and Management Kenya |
Bibiana Lumuli Wanalwenge Master of Science Communication Management Kenya |
Simon Wankuru Doctor of Project Management Project Management Kenya |
Nasser Ahmad Farhat Post-Doctorate of Science Environmental Engineering Leba non |
George Antoun Abdel Nour Bachelor of Science Electric and Electronics Engineering Leba non |
Aminetou Mohamed Deyoune Master of Psychology Human Develop ment Psychology Mauritania |
Walter Plaza Rodríguez Doctor of Education Education Mexico |
Ganga Sagar Prajapati Bachelor of Science Civil Engineering Nepal |
Juan Jose Montoya Pérez Doctor of Juridical Sciences International Relations and Diplomacy Nicaragua |
Abdou Ousmane Doctor of Economics Economics Niger |
Moses Oluwafemi Taiwo Master of Business Administration Accounting Nigeria |
Henry Aletor Otaigbe Doctor of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship Nigeria |
Oluyomi Ebenezer Oyewole Bachelor of Science Civil Engineering Nigeria |
Asuen Uyiekpen Isaac Doctor of Philosop hy Airport Operations Management Nigeria |
Kamoru Adeleke Adigun Doctor of Philosop hy Entrepreneurship Nigeria |
Adebayo Alfred Adeniyi Master of Science Mathematics Nigeria |
Kevin Enienghan Bachelor of Science Mechanical Engineering Nigeria |
Marisa Matsuda Matayoshi Bachelor of Business Administration Management and Leadership Peru |
Rachel Cate Perez Piguerra Doctor of Science Physical Education Philipp ines |
Showq Alfageih Doctor of Economics Economics Saudi Arab ia |
Victor Moyo Bachelor of Science Project Management South Africa |
Gale Betty Alifoso Bachelor of Public Health Public Health and Epidemiology South Sudan |
Avelino Guterres Correia Doctor of Science Public Health Timor-Leste |
Deon J. Messam-Reid Bachelor of Science Psychology Turks and Caicos Islands |
Oguru Patrick Onen Bachelor of Criminology Crime Detection and Investigation Uganda |
Simon Alazar Bachelor of Science Architecture Uganda |
Osemeike Gloria Eyieyien Doctor of Philosop hy Project Management United Kingdom |
Andries Stefanus Pelser Bachelor of Science Computer Information Technology USA |
Sanes Tanis Master of Administration Administration USA |
Yinet Ramirez Capestany Doctor of Science Behavioral Analysis USA |
Adara Pena Doctor of Science Behavioral Analysis USA |
Susana Teitelbaum Doctor of Education Education USA |
Joaquin Alvarez Master of Science Building and Construction Engineering USA |
Gerdeen Notherdeen Sutherland Doctor of Education Educational Leadership and Administration USA |
Elda Evelia McGrath Doctor of Philosop hy Education Policy USA |
Maria del Carmen Contreras Velasco Bachelor of Science Psychology USA |
Misti L. Millar-Calderon Doctor of Philosop hy Biology USA |
Fernando Vallejo Master of Business Administration Engineering Management USA |
Lulet Patricia Rhoden Bachelor of Business Administration Business Administration USA |
Sabrina Donaldson Master of Science Animal Science USA |
Thandiwe Butt Bachelor of Science Psychology Zambia |
Edward Tamukaneyi Chinhoyi Bachelor of Project Management Project Management Zimbab we |
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We find ourselves in a world
in which sciences such
as Physics, Chemistry, Biology
and others are called “hard
sciences”. History, Pedagogy,
Sociology, and others are called
“soft sciences”.
The above separation is also
called the “Two Cultures” problem.
“The entire debate arose
as a result of the Rede Conference,
given in Cambridge by the
researcher Charles Percy Snow,
where the abyss between the
exact and natural sciences and
the human sciences was expressed.”
Of the “Hard Sciences”
and the “Soft Sciences”. Notes on the
“Two Cultures” Dialnet- October
2019. file:///C:/Users/rhlor/Downloads/
Dialnet-DeLasCienciasDurasYLasCienciasBlandas-
9076024.pdf
We are also witnesses of
the way in which research has
developed in the world of the
people who dedicate themselves
to this task. In the world
of learning scientific activity,
there is a separation in areas
of modality knowledge that
can’t be done by researchers of
hypotheses, theories, and laws
because each of these operations
must be integrated into
what has been demonstrated
and proven by other sciences.
The new proposal is demonstrated
and its integration into
the entire collection of existing
sciences is verified.
We encounter another
problem in scientific work:
how much research has been
done in the field of “hard sciences”,
how much research
has been carried out in the
field of “soft sciences”.
“The distance between
humanities and sciences has
its origins in the specialization
and professionalization
of sciences in the 19th century.
At this stage, blind faith in
science is strengthened and
greater importance is given
to practical knowledge and
research in physics, biology,
mathematics, chemistry,
botany, etc. Even more so
when the Industrial Revolution
occurred. That fact marked the
takeoff of the scientific career
with economic purposes and to
solve the technological problems
of the young capitalist
system.” Of the “Hard Sciences”
and the “Soft Sciences”. Notes on the
“Two Cultures”. Dialnet- October
2019. file:///C:/Users/rhlor/Downloads/
Dialnet-DeLasCienciasDurasYL-asCienciasBlandas-9076024.pdf
Currently, it’s about solving
the problem of the poor development
of sciences that can’t
make use of the laboratory or
mathematics to carry out their
verifications with the holistic
research model that means
providing a comprehensive
solution to a problem.
“In the study programs,
it’s mandatory to include the
teaching of science and at the
same time its relationship with
the problems of the modern
world and society itself.
In addition, young students
and future scientists must be
guided towards the application
of their research in the solution
of practical and community
problems.” Of the “Hard Sciences”
and the “Soft Sciences”.
Notes on the “Two Cultures”. Dialnet- October
2019. file:///C:/Users/rhlor/Downloads/
Dialnet- DeLasCienciasDurasYLasCienciasBlandas-
9076024.pdf
The problem we have been
left with is that of the development
of the Human and Social
Sciences. First, we will make a
list of those considered “hard
sciences” and then another of
the “soft sciences”.
The Human Sciences are
those that have to do with the
human being in his development
as such and in the arts,
which are the activities considered
beautiful. The Humanities
exist in the Western world of
ancient Rome. Social Sciences
is the intermediate point between
what human beings do
in their development and what
they can demonstrate through
experiment and quantification.
Human Sciences
• Philology. Divided into Language
Sciences and Literature
Sciences.
• Hermeneutics. Science of
Interpretation
• Religious Sciences. Scientific
analysis of various religions.
• Educational Sciences. Study
of the different practices to
achieve education by solving
the problems that it entails.
• Historiography or Art Sciences.
Historicization, analysis
and criticism of art.
• History of Culture. History of
the Ideas expressed.
• Law Sciences. They study
how to direct individuals in
a comprehensive and fair
manner.
• Geography. Study of the
Earth's surface and societies.
Social Sciences
• Politic science. Study of political
systems and behavior
of society.
• Demography. Study of the
distribution, composition,
and size of the population.
• Economy. Study of goods
and services in terms of their
production, distribution, and
consumption.
• Semiology. Study of signs and
symbols and the way humans
create them.
• Sociology. Study of human
groups in terms of the relationships
established in the
production of goods - work,
distribution, and consumption
of these.
• Linguistics. Study of the
structure and evolution of
Language
• Psychology. Study of the
mental processes and behavior
of human beings.
• Anthropology. Study of human
groups as such.
• History. Study of certain systems
over time.
We have disciplines that are
linked to the Social Sciences:
Accounting, Administration,
Communication, Design, International Relations, Public
Relations, Journalism, Social
Work and Library Science
How many investigations
of the previous sciences have
been done from the end of the
19th century to date?
“The research that defines
the epistemic assessment of
reality in social sciences must
be seen in three dimensions.
These point out, firstly, the
crisis of the paradigms of
social knowledge, secondly,
the historical development of
social disciplines, and finally,
the general trends of professional
training in the context
of the crisis of contemporary
society. UNE SCO – IE SALC - Higher Education and Society- 2019. https://
www.iesalc.unesco.org/ess/index.php/
ess3/issue/view/6
The previous quote shows us
where the Human and Social
Sciences meet.
We will mention the research
developed in Mathematics
due to the amount
of new knowledge that the
“hard sciences” have: Number
Theory, Mathematical Analysis,
Differential Geometry, Algebra,
Fundamental Theorem
of Arithmetic, Law of Quadratic
Reciprocity, Hyperbolic
Geometry, Abstract Algebra,
Vector Space, Boolean Algebra,
Mathematical Logic, The Linear
Algebra, The Continuity of
a Function, Gödel’s Theorems,
Taniyama’s Conjecture, Proof
of Well’s Conjectures, Probability,
Topology, Differential
Geometry, Algebraic Geometry,
The Theory of Invariants, The
Four Color Theorem, Fermat’s
Theorem, The classification of
finite simple groups, Differential
Geometry, The Theory
of Relativity, Game Theory,
Topology, Metric Space, Topological
Space, The Theory of
Categories, Algebraic Geometry,
Measurement Theory,
Lebesque Integral, Probability
Theory, Ergodic Theory, Knot
Theory, Quantum Mechanics,
Ergodic Theory, Singularity
Theory, Theory of Catastrophes, Model Theory, Fractals,
Lie Groups, Algebras, Recursion
Theory, Computer Complexity
Theory, Data Analysis,
Optimization, Operations Research,
Discrete Mathematics,
Transformation Fast Fourier,
Forward Error Correction, The
Kalman Filter, Control Theory,
The RSA Algorithm, Asymmetric
Cryptography.
To have information on the
research work of the other
“hard sciences” along with the
theories created, we can read
the work of Dr. Pablo González
Casanova. “General Secretary
of the Association of Universities
(1953-1954), Coordinator
of the Center for Development Studies (1965-1966), Director
of the Institute of Social Research
(1966-1970), Member of
the Governing Board for several
years, and Rector of UNAM
(1970-1972)”. https://www.unesco.
org/es/articles/memoriam-de-pablogonzalez-
casanova-premio-internacional-
unesco-jose-marti-2003
The extraordinary work of
Dr. González Casanova is the
following: The new sciences and
the Humanities: from Academia
to Politics. Clacso, 2017. https://
biblioteca-repositorio.clacso.edu.ar/
bitstream/CLACSO/16599/1/Nuevas_
Ciencias.pdf
Due to all the Theories and
Laws of Mathematics we can
conclude that the field of Human and Social Sciences is
forgotten.
It’s also our knowledge that
research has been developed
alongside trade; There are
large research budgets for
those areas that will give great
dividends in the creation of
technology.
What we are witnessing in
this XXI century is a society
that is not keeping pace with
all research: we are talking
about the society of misinformation
and the society
of hate speech. What at first
glance can be obtained is that
everything that the “hard
sciences” have done, we do
not know how to coexist with each other. Where can you go
if each wants to destroy the
other? If we destroy the others
we won’t go anywhere.
It’s necessary that we
become aware that a world
where each being can grow towards
the path, they desire is
well-being for all. We urgently
need to develop “soft sciences”
thinking.
If you look at the world
situation regarding the study
and development of “soft sciences”
by visiting universities,
we see that students of these
sciences are few. Students are
also allergic to reading “soft
science” works.
Another fact happens: publishers
don’t not want to publish
works of “soft sciences”,
because the market for them is
scarce. In libraries, these works
are little requested and there
they die. When you want to do
work with “soft sciences” bibliography,
it’s difficult to find recently published works.
This world will not change,
it will not be one of peace, it
will not be better with opportunities
if we don’t make a
change that will not come from
heaven, we are human beings
who must make the change.
Now we are in interdisciplinary
and discipline, it
means that the elements of
other sciences are introduced
to the central study, enough,
we must soak up and develop
these sciences that are telling
us: gentlemen human beings
to build everything you want.
first, you have to build
yourself.
You are studying at Atlantic
International University: when
you are told to read a work in
the Human or Social Sciences,
take the time so that you can
build the world we need.
Learning is to build
and to build ourselves.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. De las “Ciencias Duras” y las “Ciencias Blandas”.
Apuntes sobre las “Dos Culturas” Dialnet- octubre 2019.
file:///C:/Users/rhlor/Downloads/Dialnet-DeLasCienciasDurasYLasCienciasBlandas-
9076024.pdf | González Casanova, Pablo. Las nuevas ciencias y
las Humanidades: de la Academia a la Política. Clacso, 2017. https://
biblioteca-repositorio.clacso.edu.ar/bitstream/CLACSO/16599/1/Nuevas_Ciencias.
pdf | UNAM- DGIRE- Entre Todos- Revista de Ciencias Sociales.
https://entretodos.dgire.unam.mx/revistas-ciencias-sociales.html | UNAMRevista
Mexicana de Sociología- 2024. http://mexicanadesociologia.
unam.mx/index.php/v82ne/445-v82nea6 | UNESCO. Ciencias Sociales y
Humanas. Construyendo Economías y Sociedades Inclusivas y
Sostenibles. https://www.unesco.org/es/social-human-sciences | UNESCO
– IESALC- Educación Superior y Sociedad- 2019. https://www.iesalc.
unesco.org/ess/index.php/ess3/issue/view/6
1. Introduction
The status of retirees tends
to differ among countries
according to classification.
Countries have been categorized
largely according to economic
status. For retirees in
developing and less-developed
countries, cases of depression
have risen steadily, depending
on overall population and
standard of living to which
individuals are exposed (Kail
& Carr, 2020). For developed
countries, statistics about depression
cases are staggered in
spite of the state of economic
growth and development (Fiiwe,
2020). Nevertheless, the rate
of depression among people
varies remarkably due to
prevalence or lack of socioeconomic
amenities. For most
less developed and developing
countries that are characterized
by high population,
poverty and unemployment,
depression tends to rank high
among the youths and older
members of the population
(Adetunde, Imhonopi, George & Derby, 2016; Otakpo, John-Nelso n
& Wike, 2020).
Rising cases of depression in
Nigeria is alarming, and have
become a source of concern
to medical workers as well as researchers. Depression is a
recurring problem traceable,
to a large extent, to socioeconomic,
psychological and
biological sources. It has also
been traced to diverse issues which are beyond the immediate
control of victims. Among
the various groups of people
that are most vulnerable to
depression in Nigeria’s socioeconomic
context are retirees.
On a yearly basis, the number
of retirees from Nigeria’s
public and private sectors has
continued to increase (Abdulkadir,
Rasaq & Isiaka, 2018). While
some retirees are prepared for
the changes and challenges
of retirement, others seem
to find themselves suddenly
faced with the vagaries that
retirement poses in a society
where the social welfare policy
is apparently ineffectual. Issues
such as rising cost of living,
loss of purchasing power,
inactivity, health concerns and
social insecurity among others
force certain categories of
people into depression (Taylor,
Taylor, Nguyen & Chatters, 2018).
Depression is induced essentially
by both internal and
external factors.
One of the categories of
stakeholders in the management
of depression is the
community of social workers.
Considering the mitigating
and interventionist role of
social workers in issues that
affect society welfare, and
the preponderance of depression
cases among retirees, it
is expedient to investigate the
extent to which social workers
in Nigeria have helped to
ameliorate depression among
retirees. With reference specifically
to public sector establishments,
retirees from the
sector are exposed to economic
hardships, owing principally to difficulty in obtaining their
retirement gratuities and pensions
(Fiiwe, 2020).
Retirement is a phase during
which retirees are disengaged
from work colleagues and
other social groups that could
keep them in active interaction
and social engagement.
Absence of social interaction
and inactivity inevitably breed
loneliness (Olusegun, 2022). In
general, uncertainties about
life in retirement generate
worries among potential
retirees, particularly where
they have neither planned adequately
nor received professional
counseling (Ejeh, Achor &
Ejeh, 2019). Retirement is the
exit of individuals from active
engagement in official work at
a stipulated age (Akpan, 2021).
As a consequence, such individuals
cease to draw financial
resources from the work
place. As a phase in the life
of employees, retirement is
cessation from organized work
activities either compulsorily
or voluntarily (Mokuolu, 2016).
Retirement gives retirees the
independence to determine
how they intend to spend their
time. It tends to accord them
a right to freedom of time.
The freedom, if not properly
planned and engaged with
specific goals and objectives,
could expose retirees to frustration,
health issues, idleness
and disaffection (Akpan, 2021; Kail & Carr, 2020). Across most
states in the Nigerian federation,
retirees are owed pensions
running into months.
Evidently, lack of funds
creates economic hardship for
retirees in the maintenance of
their health and other domestic
family needs. Such situations
result in poor mental
health of which depression
and its symptoms are of significant
notice. This issue is
recurrent among many public
sector retirees in Nigeria.
Nigeria operates the largest
economy in West Africa, and
given its abundance of natural
and human resources, majority
of the country’s citizens
ought to have access to better
socio-economic amenities.
Statistics about the growth
of Nigeria’s economy do not
depict in reality the living
conditions of a vast proportion
of the population. Mismanagement
of resources and
corruption have exposed most
government employees to
difficulties, especially retirees
whose emoluments are unduly
delayed, and in some cases
short-changed. Continued
delay of retirees’ pensions and
exposure to economic hardship
have been observed to
induce depression on a rising
scale among retirees in the
Nigerian public sector space.
Given the strategic professional
role that social workers play in society, the paper
has two objectives: (i) To
assess the extent to which
social workers are engaged
in stemming depression
among public sector retirees
in Nigeria; (ii) To determine
whether or not social workers
are prominent in the management
of depression among
retirees in Nigeria’s sociohealthcare
system. The paper
is structured in five sections.
The rest of the paper is as
follows: literature review is
covered in section 2 while
section 3 is the methodology.
Section 4 presents analysis
and discussion of results. Section 5 ends with conclusion
and recommendations.
2. Literature review
Depression is traced to
several sources, but there is
no universal agreement on the
number of causes of depression.
However, evidence has
traced depression to family
heredity, loss of affection, side
effects of certain medications
and mood change (Odoni et al.,
2021). Basically, depression is
an abnormal mood, depicting
listlessness, frustration
and thoughts of sorrow and
helplessness (Ogbonna, 2017).
Further, it is a state of human anxiety, excessive worry and
detachment from activities
in the surrounding environment
(Lee & Smith, 2009; Ajewole,
2017). Chronic depression, if
not systematically monitored
and managed early enough,
could become a psychiatric
case of disorder. Symptoms
of depression are evident in
irritability, lack of concentration,
indecision, suicidal
thoughts and loss of appetite
(Garrouste & Perdrix, 2021). Because
personality traits differ
among individuals, what may
be viewed as a symptom of
depression in one individual
may not be present in another individual. Considering this
view, symptoms of depression
are diverse. In some other individuals,
signs of depression
manifest as feelings of insecurity,
negative thoughts, loss of
sexual desire and restlessness
(Nall, 2019).
Depression has a long history
across the human race.
The dimension of depression
is multi-faceted. Research
has shown that poor quality
of food and unhealthy
environment can exacerbate
depression (Odoni et al., 2021).
This finding buttresses the
view that causes of depression
are diverse. Depression
has been further classified
as cognitive, behavioural
and emotional disturbances
(Ajewole, 2017; Cheruvu & Chiyaka,
2019). Although depression
is commonplace among all
categories of people, it is erroneous
to associate it as more
prominent with the elderly. It
is not inherently normal with
aging. Depression is found to
have grave consequences for
individuals’ health, cognition
and general composure (Taylor,
2014; Ajewole, 2017; Sarah, 2018).
While elderly adults display
more frequency of depression
than younger adults, traces of
depression common with the
elderly have been identified as
regularity of decreased energy, agitation, loss of concentration
and fatigue among others
(Ajewole, 2017). Indeed, studies
on depression are diverse and
replete with varied symptoms,
causes and consequences
(Dang, Ananthasubramaniam &
Mezuk, 2022).
An empirical study conducted
on female retirees and
depression in China adopted
regression discontinuity, using
data from panel studies
(Yang, Tao, Cheng & Ti, 2022).
The study found retirement to
significantly reduce depression
levels among female retirees
in China. On further analysis,
findings show that retirement
has no significant potential to improve levels of depression
among female retirees,
but could exacerbate depression
among female retirees
who have neither spouse nor
close relationships. Another
empirical investigation, set in
the Korean work environment,
on whether retirement induces
depression or discourages
labour force anticipation found
that statutory retirement is
not associated with depression,
but there is evidence of
symptoms of depression (Lee &
Smith, 2009). The study established
that retirees more often
face depression than workers.
In a study of depression
among retirees in Kogi State,
Nigeria, findings revealed that
retirees are associated with
severe depression (Ejeh, Igbokwe
& Onoja, 2020). The researchers
adopted survey design and a
multi-stage sampling technique
to pull retirees from the
field, data were subjected to
descriptive statistics.
Health belief theory
Social workers rely on a
number of theories to enhance
their understanding of health
cases. Such theories describe
old and modern beliefs. Social
work theories are explored
to enhance service efficiency
(Sanchez, 2018). One of such
theories is the health belief
theory, drawn to underpin this
study. Health workers seek and invest in tools that could
improve their productivity and
performance in the course of
providing healthcare services
(Johnson, 2016). Among such
behavior tools is the health
belief model. Health belief
model is a social psychological
health behavior tool that
aids health workers to explain
and predict patients’ behavior
and how they respond to
sickness and therapy. When
the health belief model was
first developed, the objective
was to understand people’s
failure to follow strategies that
could prevent diseases (Wayne,
2019). The model was essentially
designed for screening to
detect diseases early enough
for treatment and prevention
purposes. However, use
of the model extended to how
patients respond to symptoms
and comply with medical
treatments (Nall, 2019). Health
belief model suggests that an
individual’s belief in the dangers
or effects of an illness/
disease and potency of medical
action will predict the probability
of accepting and taking a
medical action (Johnson, 2016).
Despite its contribution to
positive health behavior, the
health belief theory exhibits
some weakness (Wayne, 2019).
There are other determinants
of a patient’s acceptance
of health behavior (action).
Among the determinants are attitudes, personal belief and
culture which the health belief
model fails to bring to the
fore. Furthermore, the model
has no reference to economic
and environmental factors
which may act as impediments
to recommended health
actions. The theory appears to
have generalized application
when indeed individuals and
patients differ in background
orientation. Similarly, belief
systems are not in consonance
across all societies.
The health belief model is
rooted in the behavioural theory
that suggests two behavioural
expectations. First, an
individual’s strong desire is to
avoid sickness, and where the
individual is already sick, the
desire is to recuperate. Second,
a particular health action
will prevent or cure sickness.
Health behavior depends on an
individual’s perception of the
gains or benefits associated
with the health behavior. Six
behavioural constructs were
formulated around the health
belief model (Collins, 2020).
These are perceived susceptibility,
perceived severity,
perceived benefits, perceived
barriers, cue to action and
self-efficacy. In the first instance,
according to the notion
of perceived susceptibility,
an individual may feel from
internal conviction that he is
at risk of an illness/disease.
Such an individual has a sense
of vulnerability which externally
exposes him to risk of
disease (Abraham, 2017). On the
other hand, perceived severity
considers the degree of impact
or consequences of illness
or disease. In this instance,
it refers to the seriousness
of an illness or strong threat
it poses to the health of the
individual when the disease
continues untreated or
without positive response to
treatment. The individual may
nurture this line of perception
(feelings). Severity may result
in death, physical incapacitation
and threat to social status
among others.
For perceived benefits, the
individual tends to consider
the gains of adopting
a health action. A benefit in
this context is the patient’s/
individual’s feeling or thought
of the effectiveness (potency)
of the health action available
to cure the illness or stop a
disease (Mirshad, 2020). Perceived
benefits as conceived
by the patient may rely also
on the patient’s perception of
susceptibility and severity of
the illness/disease. Furthermore,
there is the construct
of perceived barriers. Barriers
are those factors which the
individual may consider and
decide not to take a health
action. They are negative
influencers from the medical experts’ perspective. They are
obstacles or impediments to
recommended health actions.
Barriers generally arise from
the individual’s perception of
the side effects and cost of a
recommended drug or medical
action. Cost may be a significant
barrier where the patient
is poor.
From the foregoing, it would
be observed that the individual’s/
patient’s perception
is recurrent and plays a critical
role in whether or not to adopt
a particular health behavior.
(Collins, 2020). Perception by
the individual is what triggers
or compels the individual/patient
to decide whether or not
to accept and take available
health action recommended.
However, the construct of
self-efficacy is the extent
to which a patient demonstrates
confidence in taking
the desired health behavior.
Import of the theory is health
patient’s understanding of the
need to seek health care services
in the appropriate place
by consulting qualified professionals.
Retirees who recognize
that they are depressed or
discover symptomatic changes
in their system should make
appropriate consultation.
Role of Social workers
Social work is humanitarian
in nature, designed to
improve the social conditions of citizens in need (Mirshad,
2020). Social work is indispensable
because of the
vulnerability of the physically
challenged, older members of
the society and people with
other health issues. There
are yet individuals who are
imperiled by diverse medical
and psychological conditions
for which they need coping
assistance. Medical doctors,
psychologists and social workers
are trained to diagnose
depression from symptoms
exhibited by victims. The essence
of diagnosis is to help
patients manage the case and
guide them through the path
of recovery. Societies cannot
function and grow progressively
if where citizens are
mentally, psychologically,
spiritually, economically and
physically unhealthy (Collins,
2020). Social work is a lifetransforming
and actionbased
profession by which
social workers intervene to
create relief for victims of
social injustice, drug addicts,
rape victims, depression,
alcoholics and those suffering
from self-inflicted inferiority
complex among others (Azusa
Pacific University, n.d.). The role
of social workers is to enhance
people’s wellbeing and
help them adjust changing as
well as challenging situations
(Sanchez, 2018). Social workers
examine social problems and
analyze possible interventionist
strategies (Ambrosino, Ambrosino,
Heffernan & Shuttlesworth,
2008). Social work seeks to
achieve the goal of rehabilitation
as well as equip patients/
victims with the right attitude.
TO BE CONTINUED
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