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Author: VERNOUS Guyverson
Title: The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration
Area: Science and Engineering
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Program: PhD in Information Systems
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	Study of Information Technology (IT) impacts on Public Administration Performance: Survey of Haitian Information Systems, case of a developing country. A Doctoral Thesis Presented to The School of Science and Engineering In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of PhD in Information Systems *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 4 - Performance PART I: INTRODUCTION The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 6 - Performance 1. Introduction 1.1 Background of the research In the last decade, much research in information systems (Llopis, 2000) has presented information technology as the fastest and most efficient way for an organization to go towards performance and efficiency. The 21st century was claimed as the digital revolution era. At the opening session of the first World Summit of Information Society (WSIS 2003), the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, stated (UN-ICT-TF, 2005) We are going through a historic transformation in the way we live, learn, work, communicate and do business (...) Technology has produced the information age. Such terms like information age, information society and knowledge society1 are often used to describe the deep- seated impact of the ICT on our lives. Experts argue today that we are living a new industrial revolution more fundamental than the former. Tapscott and Caston (1994:395) point out The companies which will not be aware of this new era and will not know how to clear themselves a road during the period of transition will be vulnerable and quickly old-fashioned. In the mid 1980`s, technology has played a major role in the development of business in the world. Almost all business sectors have leaned on technology to get into the competition in order to survive. Information systems have been the key step towards efficiency when automating different tasks in the companies, presumably to help reduce margin error and realize larger savings. In the mid 1990`s, the Internet brought a new breath in the market when extending the frontiers of the globalization, challenging time and space; therefore, having a profound impact on the way the world conducts economic and business practices. 1 Information age, information society, knowledge society are frequently used interchangeably referring to a society in which the creation, distribution, diffusion, use, and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political, and cultural activity. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 7 - Performance The electronic commerce2 explosion stemmed from the new mindset laid by the Internet that is the customer-oriented business. The transformation that occurred in the last twenty years in the private sector has automatically and profoundly influenced the public administration with regard to customer service and information technology in business management. Consequently, many reforms undertaken by governments in the world imply somehow technology � organizational or sophisticated, if it is not technology-centered. While some countries like United Kingdom and United states have been leading ideological reform 3 , other countries like New Zealand, Netherlands and Sweden have followed a practical path when engaging the same reform; adversely affecting developing nations that have pursued this trend mainly because of severe economic crisis or simply for the requirements of international lending organizations 4 (Kamarck, 2003) took the stampede lately and hardly. Nonetheless the pressure of the post-modern society characterized by a global economy mainly dominated by technology ignores which nation is rich or poor; therefore, each government has to do its` part to satisfy their citizens, despite limited resources, and at the same time integrate this global economy at the dawn of the 1990s. As the post-modern public sector reform was offered up only on it`s bright side, if not imposed by lending organizations in the case of developing nations, the public sector reform preachers - lending organizations5, were in many cases, 2 Le commerce �lectronique ou e-commerce d�signe l'�change de biens et de services entre deux entit�s sur les r�seaux informatiques, notamment Internet. Il repr�sente un march� de 10 mil iards d`euros de Chiffre d'Affaire. 3 With Margaret Thatcher who came to office in Great Britain in 1979 and Ronald Reagan in 1980 in United States both running their campaign against the old bureaucracy in place. 4 The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) for Economic Cooperation and Development 5 World Bank and International Monetary Fund *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 8 - Performance impelling to enforce the reforms undertaken by rich nations upon developing countries without focusing on the social, cultural environment and the resources (human and capital resources) in place to successfully pilot the reforms. As a result the acceptation of the term performance is most likely a political construct having a different definition for the leaders of those nations. On the other hand the social impact and eventual dysfunctions was neglected when considering information technology as a technical solution while the acquisition of such technologies are exceptionally pricey. As well, the virtual environment set by the use of technology was not controlled. However years of implementation of information systems in a "lack of theoretical framework" environment has set grounds for uncertainties and doubts relating to the impact of technology on public management performance, especially in developing countries. 1.2 Problem's definition The factor to consider technology: Mainly information and communication technology in public management as a means toward performance. This raises many questions when considering closely the virtual environment created by information technology, which is very complex due to the human-factor concept and the polysemic character of information that is the core of any information systems. Also if we consider each country with its own socio-cultural reality and the root causes of the reforms undertaken, the performance concept as well as the technology, which is viewed differently. How do developing nations see performance relating to technology? Can public sector of developing nations reach performance by the use of information technology? In fact, is it rational to correlate performance to information technology? In what level can we really measure the performance achieved by an organization? What sorts of impacts are truly driven by the use of technology in public administration? How to improve the positive impacts such as performance and efficiency in public administration? *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 9 - Performance 1.3 Scope of the research Our research seeks to answer the above questions by analyzing the different scholarships and literature (see literature review) over performance concepts and information systems with regard to public administration. Two key concepts must be considered in order to prop up this research: 1. The concept of performance will be approached on two sides. The performance of the technology used and the performance of the public organizations (administration) using the technology, but first a basic knowledge on public management reform is vital. 2. The information technology concept, which has not a well-defined theory. This concept will automatically drive to study the virtual organization concept and certainly the information systems theory. To outline the impact caused by the use of technology in public administration, we will consider two schools of thought: These are the positive impact and negative impact proponents. Thereby, the entire above-questions in the definition problem section should lead to the answer of the following questions which both constitute the main posit of the research: What are the economic and social impacts of the information technologies on public administration performance in developing countries? How to evaluate performance in the context of public organization using information technology and how to improve the performance of the public managers using the information technology to perform administration tasks? However the main hypothesis which leads our research is as follows: The utilization of information technology in public administration has positive as well negative impacts on public sector performance, but those impacts *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 10 - Performance must not be viewed as a pure result of information technology when considering the complex "techno-politico-social environment" in which evolve both public managers and the technology. 1.4 Chapter summary In addition to the introduction and the conclusion, the research is divided in two major parts the theoretical analysis component and the empirical analysis both allotted in 6 chapters: -) Synthesize the chapters here 1. Theoretical body: 1. The public management in the context of the IT era 2. Information technology a. Information b. Virtual environment c. Information systems and e-government systems d. The challenges of IS in public management 3. The performance concept 4. Impacts of the ICT on performance and evaluation of impacts 5. How to improve the impacts 6. Empirical body: a. The case of Haitian public management 1.5 Literature review -) Redo this figure adding Woodrow Wilson and order dates *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 11 - Performance Figure 0.1 Literature review *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 12 - Performance PART II: THEORETICAL STUDY SECTION *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 13 - Performance Chapter 1: The public administration from 20th to 21st century Many acute observers argue that ascendancy of one trend over another owes more to rhetorical devices and selective emphasis from this corpus of conflicting ideas, together with an inherent cyclical dynamic in professional fields argues Hood (1994). This observation may explain why each new movement fails practitioners of every field in ___ succeeding deterministic thought, which always leads to a distorted view of a phenomenon (Not sure if this is the thought you want). Due to concerns like corruption, waste and incompetence, there have arisen several movements in public management fields in order to solve radically these deficiencies. We may identify principally two successive major trends: Bureaucracy and the Post-Bureaucracy which includes: Progressive public administration, new public administration and today networked administration or e-government. Then what is public administration? What do we learn from those successive movements? What is the impact of technology on each of these public sector movements? May we consider e-government as the completed form of the old thought in a new technological environment? 1.1. The public administration The Public Administration is a field of social science and a discipline, which is generally described as the marriage of public policy and public good. This term is often referred to government and bureaucracy. Yet the cross-disciplinary and intertwined character of the public administration makes it useless to be summed up to one definition (Stillman and Stillman, 20006). Accordingly, Mosher (1956)7 posits, It is best that it (Public Administration) not be defined. It is more an area of interest than a discipline, more a focus than a separate science ... It is necessarily cross-disciplinary. The overlapping and vague boundaries should be 6 Richard J. Stil man, Richard Joseph Stillman, Public Administration: Concepts and Cases, 2000. 7 Frederick C. Mosher, Research in Public Administration. (Public Administration Review, 16 summer 1956) p. 177 *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 14 - Performance viewed as a resource, even though they are irritating to some with orderly minds". Parker, the most skeptical scholar regarding Public Administration, asserts "There is really no such subject as Public Administration`, no science or art can be identified by this title, least of all any single skill or coherent intellectual discipline. The term has no relation to the world of systematic thought... It does not, in itself, offer any promising opportunity to widen or make more precise any single aspect of scientific knowledge 8 ". Dwight Waldo, more considerate, mentioned the identity crisis of the public administration field. Nonetheless the public administration is traditionally defined as the power of law (Rosembloom, 1998), which refers to regulations for administrative processes, and constitutional law for civil rights matters. Over the year law and regulations themselves do not suffice to maintain satisfactory condition for quality public sector performance. True they furnish grounds for healthy organization and constructive outcomes, but do not account for its effectiveness and efficiency (Vigoda, 20029). Let us review basic scholar definition over the past decade in order to comprehend the contour of the Public Administration. Public Administration is the production of goods and services designed to serve the needs of citizen-consumers. Dimock and Fox (1983)10. We suggest a new conceptual framework that emphasizes the perception of public administration as design, with attendant emphasis on participative decision-making and learning, purpose and action, innovation, imagination and creativity, and social interaction and "co production". Jong S. Jun11 8 Robert S. Parker, The end of PA. Public Administration, 34 (June 1965), p. 99 9 Eran Vigoda-Gadot, Eran Vigoda, Public Administration: An Interdisciplinary Critical Analysis 2002 10 Marshal Dimock, Gladys Dimock and Douglas Fox, Public Administration 5th edition, 1983 11 Jong S. Jun, Public Administration, 1986 *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 15 - Performance In ordinary usage, PA is a generic expression for the entire bundle of activities that are involved in the establishment and implementation of public policies. Cole Blease Graham, Jr, and Steven W. Hays12 Public Administration is a cooperative group effort in a public setting; it covers all three branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) and their interrelationships. Public Administration has an important role in the formulation of public policy, and is thus part of political process. It is different in significant ways from private administration. Public Administration is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community. Felix A. Nigro and Lloyd G. Nigro13. Public Administration is centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct. Charles H. Levine, B. Guy Peters, and Frank J. Thompson14. The practice of Public Administration involves the dynamic reconciliation of various in government's efforts to manage public policies and programs. Melvin J. Dubnick and Barbara S. Romzek15. Public Administration may be defined as all processes, organizations, and individuals (the latter acting in official positions and roles) associated with carrying out laws and other rules adopted or issued by legislatures, executives, and courts. George J. Gordon and Michael E. Milakovich16. 12 Managing the Public Organization, 1986 13 Modern PA seventh Edition, 1989 14 Public Administration: Challenges, Choices, Consequences, 1990 15 American Public Administration: Politics and the management of expectations, 1991 16 Public Administration in America, 1995 *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 16 - Performance Public administration is the use of managerial, political, and legal theories and processes to fulfill legislative, executive, and judicial governmental mandates for the provision of regulatory and service functions for the society as a whole or for some segment of it. David H. Rosembloom and Deborah D. Goldman17 Traditionally, public administration is thought of as the accomplishing side of government. It is supposed to comprise all those activities involved in carrying out the policies of elected officials and some activities associated with the development of those policies. Public Administration is ... all that comes after last campaign promise and election-night cheer. Grover Startling18. Without ignoring the definitions above, the expression "public administration" in this research will refer to administrative system which is aimed to implement public policy and to manage (in broader sense) public good in a cooperative (Simon, Thompson and Smithburg, 199119) environment. Those administrative tasks make information and communication a real concern for government, for the function of Public Administration is eminently related to information and communication. Belamy and Taylor (1998) talk about information polity`, other 17 Public Administration: Understanding Management, Politics and Law in the Public Sector fourth edition 1997 18 Managing the public sector fifth edition, 1997 19 Simon, Thompson and Smithburg define Administration as cooperative group behavior. Used in narrower sense to refer to those patterns of behavior that are common to many kinds of cooperating groups and that do not depend upon either the specific goals toward which they are cooperation or the specific technological methods used to reach these goals. The most important is not the methods chosen to undertaken a cooperative task but how the method was chosen (law and procedures). They argue that the activity undertaken calls for a type of organization which is a formal one - a planned system of cooperative effort in which each participant has a recognized role to play and duties or tasks to perform. Public Administration By Herbert Alexander Simon, Victor Alexander Thompson, Donald W. Smithburg 1991. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 17 - Performance authors refer to government as information broker (Add foot note)`. Snellen (1998) stated Public Administration is the pre-eminent test-bed of efficacy of the digital age` for it manages information in the narrower largely internal sense, as well as managing information within the broader demands of the polity. Its tentacular handling information and communications issues, across the spread of its domain`, is central or its raison d`�tre. This section of the research will particularly focus on the informational and communicational aspect of the public sector20, as well on the behavioral facets in order to pinpoint later the complex social environment in which public administrators performing public services and how information technology may be used in an effort to reach performance. 1.2.1. The different trends in Public Management The Anglo-Saxon`s management scholarships carved out two main movements: bureaucratic management and post bureaucratic management. The latter encompasses the progressive public administration, the new public management and the collaborative networked-government or today electronic government. These trends have arisen to meet specific politico-social concerns, and they build themselves upon each other and always keep an initial thought. Let us examine the trends identified above and how technology was employed in public management. 20 Though we wil avoid the one-sided-approach to resume the Public Administration as public information and communication administrative system *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 18 - Performance 1.2.2. Bureaucracy Management According to Max Weber21, bureaucracy refers to a strategy for administrative modernization, a method to ensure the efficiency and rationality of administrative action in western society during the second half of the nineteenth century. This new type of organization promotes a leadership and authority originated with a rational framework dominated by rules, laws and regulations but not with traditional or charismatic powers. Weber alleged that bureaucracy was guided by the objectives of efficiency, calculability and predictability. Consequently the main evaluative goal of bureaucracy should be maximizing efficiency according to him. But he recognized the tendency of bureaucracy to impose excessive controls on employees and warned that it could turn into an end to itself when becoming more powerful than society. In fact today, the word bureaucracy has a negative sense given that the burdensome rules and the excessive State domination and control. Has the Weberian modernization failed or is ___ its application that has failed? Was it designed to meet specific needs of the heyday bureaucratic? A large number of studies accuse bureaucracy of corruption, misuse of power, concentration of power, political interference, low creativity and managerial frustrations (page 3 of Using the lens of Max Weber`s theory of bureaucracy paper). But let`s consider the following important criticisms of bureaucracy in order to grasp the potential flaws of the Weberian bureaucracy: Ludwig (1944) states, "This word is always applied with an opprobrious connotation. They always imply a disparaging criticism of persons, institutions, or 21 Max Weber was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered as one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. Max Weber has probably been one of the most influential users of the word in its social science sense, though this word *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 19 - Performance procedures. Nobody doubts that bureaucracy is thoroughly bad and that it should not exist in a perfect world". Goulner (1954) discovered that the "govern by rules" Weberian culture encourages members of bureaucratic organizations to follow the minimum possible rules in order to get along with the structure. Merton (1957) pointed out the same critic did by Weber concerning an excess adherence to rules and regulations which could prevent the organization from achieving her goals. Let alone the application of particular rules in unsuitable situations could result dysfunctional endings. Merton called this imperfection the "goal displacement tendency". Burns and Stalker (1961) found that highly bureaucratic structures were indisposed to change. The rigid atmosphere of control, efficiency and predictability conditions the organizational members and stops them from embracing new ideas and as a result not being able to innovate. Kilcullen (1996) proposed that bureaucratic management means management under the realm of the law and the budget. "This management type is bound to comply with detailed rules and regulations fixed by the authority of a superior body. The task of the bureaucrat is to perform what these rules and regulations order him to do. His discretion to act according to his own best conviction is seriously restricted by them." Recent theorists (Add foot note) warned that former Weberian tenants misread and altered the Weber view that has asserted that a formal rationality is not necessarily optimal for efficiency. But the basic problems engendered by the was an English word before his works. He is well-known for his study of bureaucratization of society, thus many aspects of modern public administration go to his credit. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 20 - Performance Second World War and the recession period created a solid ground for success to bureaucratic systems; thus it should provide security for unemployment and retirement, stability after the recession and basic sense of fairness and equity (Osborne & Gaebler, 1992). But this slower-pace, hand labor workforce and mass-market society model will be demised to a rapid changing global world. The need for new footings was foreseen. If the public management has been searching for (words deleted do you mean that you have deleted some words or some words are missing) other trends as indicated below, it is worth noting that the negative connotation acquired by the bureaucracy stems from formal organizations, which have departed from the Weberian thought, though some inherent imperfections are being addressed by others following public management movements. Nevertheless efficiency will remain a principal goal of any forthcoming tendencies. The bureaucracy was actually designed to meet basic needs of its heyday but the progressive changes of the society will require progressive thoughts. 1.2.2.1. The technology factor in the bureaucracy's era One of the main hurdles that confronted the public administration is the undercapitalization; thereby the scarce capital available is often used to meet constant priorities such as national security (Radin, Hildreth and Miller, 1998). Due to expensiveness, technological factors were always demised by the human capital factor in order to meet ends of performance. According to Hoover (1992) Using existing staff to fill internal consulting position has been quite successful when those staffs are properly prepared for the task. Existing employees bring their experience and knowledge of the organizations and the operating procedures. They may be known by others within this organization and particularly by those with whom they will have to work to perform successfully their assigned tasks. They will not be seen as outsiders by existing managers *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 21 - Performance and employees. Therefore non-sophisticated technologies like trucks, telephones and other materials and equipments were used to improve organization (Radin, Hildreth and Miller, 1998). At this time cost-effective and efficiency, i.e. performance, was not contingent to technology but to human labor and workforce. Three reasons for that: lacks of diffusion of the technology, public administrators were not technology-educated and third the low paced-society was not requiring the technological factors as a key tool for performance and effectiveness. Nonetheless we must note that bureaucracy was considered by Weber as a technology which should help to modernize public organization. The ideal society of the 20th century would be an organization society according to him. 1.2.3 The post bureaucratic Barzelay and Armajani in their book Breaking Through Bureaucracy (1992) enlightens a bureaucratic reform vision as observed in the US in the 90s. They argue that this bureaucratic paradigm though triggers important improvement over waste, disorder and patronage, has become obsolete and inefficient. The authors contend that this new paradigm foresees the emergence of the post- bureaucratic period. This new conception stresses the delivery of value to customers, as opposed to the control of costs and the struggle for efficiency, the *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 22 - Performance diminished of economies of scale and the increasing relevance of flexibility and value delivery. This conceptual framework proposed by Barzelay and Armajani is in clashes to other theoretic propositions of other theorists noted Dubnik (1994) regarding post-bureaucratic tenets. Hence he classifies the post-bureaucratic theories in three categories: minimal state, deregulating government, and reinventing government. In this research we resume the elements of this classification in the New Public Management movement following an intensive use of sophisticated technology in the post-modern period. 1.2.3.1. Progressive public administration (PPA) In 1980`s came the progressive public administration, the predecessor of new public management move. The progressive public administration fosters democratic accountability in order to limit corruption; waste and incompetence (Karl, 1963) resulted by the bureaucracy management. The PPA is based on two thoughts: firstly, keep the public sector sharply distinct from the private sector in terms of continuity, ethos, and methods of doing business, organizational design, people, rewards and career structure. Secondly, maintain buffers against political and managerial discretion by means of an elaborate structure of procedural rules designed to prevent favoritism and corruption (Hood, 1995). The credits of the progressive movement go to Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and Louis Brandeis at the end of 1800s and debut of 1900s who have tried to transform the public management in America (Osborne & Gaebler, 1993). As a result we had: The formation of civil service systems with written exams, lockstep pay scales, and protection from arbitrary hiring or dismissal to prevent the use of government jobs as patronage. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 23 - Performance The independent public authorities to keep major construction projects - like bridges and tunnels - out of reach politicians. The splitting up of management functions and creating separately elected clerks, judges` even sheriffs. The creation of city managers profession who could run the bureaucracy in an efficient and businesslike manner in order to keep the administration untainted by the influence of politicians. The progressive movement was aimed to cure bureaucracies from corruptions, arbitraries and protect the public interest. By doing this, another problem was created: more rules and procedures were developed to control all the processes; consequently the outcomes or results were neglected (Osborne & Gaebler, 1993). This situation had systematically reinforced the bureaucracy by elaborating more procedures to struggle with corruption and encourage trust but the efficiency in term of output was ignored. 1.2.3.2. New Public Administration (NPA) Very soon the progressive public administration became the New Public Management22 with the same zeal and determination but in new techno-socio- political environment. The NPA move took the private sector management as a model in terms of outcomes and management skills. Now procedures or processes are no more the actual issues. The vertical hierarchy cedes its place to horizontal authority (decentralization) in order to give more power to disaggregated department of public administration in the objective to reach efficiency and results by a new type of control (Hood, 1995). Based on the private sector model, citizens are seen much like customers. The NPM move 22 In this research New Public Management and New Public Administration are interchangeable. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 24 - Performance would be the dominant modernization process, which has led to major reforms in many OECD and developing countries. The new public management is defined as a new paradigm, which aimed to promote a performance-oriented culture in a less centralized public administration (OECD, 1996). The NPA is characterized by a closer focus on outcomes, a decentralized management environments, a greater focus on efficiency and productivity, and a responsive administration. This OECD statement posits well these tenets: "This fundamental change in outlook has engaged all Member countries in a difficult process of cultural change: Instead of thinking in terms of due process and rigid frameworks for service provision, institutions and individuals are encouraged to focus more on improving the results of public interventions, including exploring alternatives to direct public provision" (OECD, 1996). Holmes and Shand (1995)23 use the following definition: "A more strategic or results-oriented (efficiency, effectiveness and service quality) approach to decision-making"; "The replacement of highly centralized hierarchical organizational structures with decentralized management environments where decisions on resource allocation and service delivery are taken closer to the point of delivery, where greater relevant information is available and which provide scope for feedback from clients and other interest groups"; 23 (Holmes and Shand, Management Reform; Some Practitioner Perspectives on the Past Ten Years Governance, October, 1995, p. 551) *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 25 - Performance "Flexibility to explore alternatives to direct public provision which might provide more cost effective policy outcomes"; "Focusing attention on the matching of authority and responsibility as a key to improving performance, including through such mechanisms as explicit performance contracting; The creation of competitive environments within and between public sector organizations"; "The strengthening of strategic capacities at the centre to "steer" government to respond to external changes and diverse interests quickly, flexibly and at least cost"; "Greater accountability and transparency through requirements to report on results and their full costs"; and "Service-wide budgeting and management systems to support and encourage these changes." Hyden (1992 and 2000), Bratton & van de Walle, (1992) noted a governance abuse tendency in developing country which result to: personalized nature of rule in which key political actors exercise unlimited power; systemic clientelism; misuse of State resources and institutionalized corruption; opaque government; breakdown of the public realm; lack of delegation of power and withdrawal of the masses from governance. These pathologies required critical cure, therefore lending organizations intervened in early 1990`s with good governance programs, which mainly emphasize the NPM tenets dominating the different reforms initiated in 1980`s in OECD countries. According to the World Bank, good *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 26 - Performance governance consists of a public service that is efficient, a judicial system that is reliable, and an administration that is accountable to the public. Then the Bretton Woods institution elaborates on four elements of good governance (World Bank, 1989, 1992), which was the nostrum for developing nations in order to achieve performance and efficiency: 1. Public sector management emphasizing the need for effective financial and human resource management through improved budgeting, accounting and reporting, and rooting out inefficiency particularly in public enterprises; 2. Accountability in public services, including effective accounting, auditing and decentralization, and generally making public officials responsible for their actions and responsive to consumers; 3. A predictable legal framework with rules known in advance; a reliable and independent judiciary and law enforcement mechanisms; and 4. Availability of information and transparency in order to enhance policy analysis, promote public debate and reduce the risk of corruption. Obviously the World Bank has mixed up different reforms experienced by developed nations in order to outline an NPMlike` agenda enhancing the following watchwords in mid 1990`s: *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 27 - Performance Decentralization24 to lower state control in order to be more responsive and allowing the community`s interests to be represented in government decision-making structures, Privatization, which refers to the transfer of control and responsibilities for government functions and services to the private sector � private voluntary organizations or private enterprises. Contracting-out 25 to realize cost savings from inefficient public bureaucracies that are more intent on satisfying the wishes of producer groups than of consumers. This scheme constitutes the sinequanon conditions for developing nations to have access to international lending funds to overcome economic crisis while endeavoring to be more effective and efficient in public service delivery. Consequently the good governance reform proposed by the World Bank should be the shortcut to draw those countries on applying worldwide movement that is the NPM. Nonetheless the pressure of the post-modern society characterized by a global economy mainly dominated by technology ignores which nation is rich or poor, so each government has to do their part to satisfy their citizens whether with limited resources and at the same time integrate this global economy at the dawn of the 1990s. 24 Decentralization can be defined as the transfer of authority or responsibility for decision making, planning, management, or resource al ocation from the central government to its field units, district administrative units, local government, regional or functional authorities, semi-autonomous public authorities, parastatal organizations, private entities and non-governmental private voluntary organizations. 25 Refers to the out-sourcing or buying in of goods and services from external sources instead of providing such services in-house. It is a method of privatization that is increasing in popularity due to the emphasis on efficiency and service delivery. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 28 - Performance If bureaucracy was a theoretical framework proposed by Weber, the progressive movement was a pragmatic framework argued by administrators with bold awareness pertaining to relevant changes started in local rather than national governments. Among others26, Osborne and Gaebler in their book Reinventing Government (1992) produced a popular agenda for high-performance government in United-States (1993). However the NPA move was later formally addressed and embraced by academe and schools. The Minnowbrook Conferences (1968, 1988) held by Dwight Waldo was the momentum in the formation of the identity of the NPA movement in United States. At this conference they argued for drastic changes, for a new public administration; an administration based on relevance, participation, change, values, and social equity (Radin, Hildreth and Miller, 1998). Never before, had the government been under such pressure to change the administration27. These changes were aimed to deal with a new social environment. A global marketplace with competitive pressure on national economy, an information society in which people have access to information almost as quickly as their leaders do, a Knowledge based- society where educated people demand more autonomy, a niche market where customers accustomed to high quality and extensive choice were going to change radically the society, as well the public administration (Osborne and Gaebler, 1992). 1.2.3.2.1 The technology factor in the NPA period The assumption of the NPA was spurred on by many changes in the society: the explosion of the society that makes it more difficult to satisfy its needs, the industrialization of the technology, the explosion of PC, and its diffusion by the 26 Christopher Hood has the same impact on the English government in 1991 27 Consequently, the former President Clinton (United States) in 1993 initiated a new strategic reform named reinventing government. The Clinton regime endeavored to end the unresponsive hierarchical model and top down bureaucracy for a new public sector both less expensive and more efficient. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 29 - Performance private sector. But the effective use by the private sector to improve its performance would draw serious attention. Thus the adoption of the technology as the way toward performance is followed. ---) Add more details 1.2.4 The links between the public management trends In the above-mentioned trends (Bureaucracy, Post-Bureaucracy), _____ Information technologies were mainly used to provide technical support for the work of the administration. However in the NPM period the technology was over- emphasized and the focus was on problems, which could be solved by technical means (Traunmuller, 1999; Schuppan/Reichard, 2002). The figure (1) below shows clearly that the differences between the trends stemmed from the social and political conjuncture that is less considerable (Hood, 1994). There is a permanent connection between them, which is the Rules or Procedures. However, dependent on social and political circumstances, other elements are stressed more than in the former trend. The bureaucracy for example, supports centralization of the public administration by erecting rigid rules and this was the new way to modernize the public management. The PPA endorses accountability while maintaining the centralization thought. The NPM also encourages accountability but aims to unburden the public administration by *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 30 - Performance decentralization and focuses on results and outcomes. Now the e-government, as we will see later, advocates technological modernization while being citizen oriented and vertical-controlled. Hence the modernization in e-government regime does not have the same meaning as in the bureaucracy. The e- government modernization is by information technology instead by rules whilst authors alert professionals not to digitalize the administration but reengineer the administrative processes (Fountain, 2001); we will talk more about it later. PPA B Centralization Accountability U R E Rules & A procedures N U P C M R A C Horizontal control Modernization Y Outcomes and Citizen focused E-GOVERNMENT Figure 1.3 the links between the public management trends The second figure beneath illustrates the degree of technology employment in the different trends studied here. The bureaucracy used organizational technology (telephone, trucks, and other existent ordinary technologies) to strengthen the administration, while the New Public Management deployed information systems and other communication technologies to reach outcomes and turn the administration into a citizen-focused organization. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 31 - Performance PPA B U More organizational technology R E Rules & A Organization N Debut of U procedures al technology P sophisticated C M technology R use A Citizen C Sophisticated oriented Y technology E-GOVERNMENT Fig. 2 the use of technology Figure 1.4 the level of technology in public management trends The 3rd figure shows how information technology was viewed with regard to performance. As stated above, the bureaucracy leaned toward rules and workforce to achieve performance, though New Public Management and Network government are technology centered in the struggle for performance. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 32 - Performance PPA Organizational B technology U R E A Rules & Perfor- Information N U Workforce mance Systems P C M R A C Sophisticated Y technology E-GOVERNMENT Figure 1.5 Technology and performance Today, given that the ubiquity and the power of the information technologies, some scholars predict that the time to reinvent the public administration is rung. Other researchers argue that information technology has the capacity to lead to the desperate radical` administrative reform (Fountain, 2002), which was never being achieved by the former trends28. As indicated by Fountain, Technology is a catalyst for social, economic, and political change at the levels of the individual, group, organization and institution. This one-sided, narrow, staunch approach from a deterministic and utopian view of IT ____ ignores many vital factors that lead to the desired change or transformation. 28 Even after many transformational reforms undertaken by some OECD countries like US, many citizens are stil complaining of the burdensome bureaucracy of the public sector. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 33 - Performance 1.2.5. The nature of public management reform Administrative reform implies radical and dramatic change if not incremental� low or higher level of change (Kraemer, 2003). The different trends studied above are describing the several reforms taken on by governments during the past 20 years. Can we identify the forces, which spur on a reform? How can we understand the process of reform in a developing country? One of the authors addressing eloquently the administrative reform in the context of the post-bureaucratic period is Bouckaert (2004); in his book Public Management Reform he pointed out the main forces that have driven reforms in countries and how these forces can determine the success of reforms. According to him, the socio-economy (which includes the global economic forces, the socio- demographic change and the socio-economic policies) and the political system (comprising the new management ideas, the pressure from citizens and the ideas of political parties) are both two principal forces that form a decision making process-fostering changes in the administrative system (see figure below). Considering this framework, we could conclude that socio-economic forces particularly the global economy which alleviated effects fostered by lending organizations compel developing nations to embrace new management ideas in condition of international loans. As a result the decision making process overlooks the citizens` desiderata and the national political ideas. The incapability of government in these countries to meet basic needs do not leave them any alternatives but the Bretton Woods agenda and the population while never experiencing a customer-oriented approach initiated by a strong private sector is unable to exercise pressure for better public services. This sad reality constitutes a real threat for successful reforms in developing nations. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 34 - Performance 1.2.6. Conclusion At this stage we have learned that from 19th to 21st century our society has experienced two main public administration periods: the bureaucracy and the post-bureaucracy (New Public Administration and the e-government). Yet we will read that they both respond to a social context and technological environment. From a low paced-society to global and rapid changing society, new footsteps were required. Although in bureaucracy era workforce was the key factor to reach performance, NPA promotes experts and technology to achieve performance and nowadays e-government argues that sophisticated information and communication technologies are vital to attaining performance (see Fig. 2). The trends studied above describe the wave of reforms carried out by many countries in the last 20 years, although we learned that developing countries *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 35 - Performance present a particularity when the forces driven their reforms are not spurred on by their political system but mainly by lending organizations on behalf of economic crisis in order to guaranty international loans. These so-called reforms in developing nations are culminating very often to a performance according to an organizational framework from these institutional organizations and due to lack of local resources and education the use of information technology during the process is often not sustainable. Is it rational then to consider performance a corollary of information technology? We will later study whether technology has a significant (positive/negative) impact on public administration, ___ what impact they have and how to improve the positive ones? At this step of the research it is very important to study what Information Technology is and how performance can be achieved with it, while focusing on the case of developing nations. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 36 - Performance Chapter 2: Information Technology (IT) 2.1. Information Simon (1983) posits that in the post-industrial age the issue for management will not be production organization but processing information. This statement makes it clear that information would be an important issue in our today world. So what is Information in the context of management and computer science? The literature reveals different meanings and even counter-meanings of information. However let us start frankly by saying that until now information has not a precise theory that could lead to a meaningful assertion (Goguen, 1997). If Bowker (1994), Haraway (1991) and Agre (1995) consider information as a myth, Schiller (1994) views it as commodity in the post-industrial society. Petit Robert dictionary defines information as a � useful � data on something or someone whom we carry in the knowledge of a person or a public. If information improves the knowledge of person on a subject, the level of utility of the information depends on his perception, which depends on his environment. According to Rigaud (1979) the meaning of information implies four components: absence of uncertainty, freedom of choice, preservation of the organization and evolution by exchange. Thus information confers opportunities and constraint. Zardet (1986) stated, Any message, new or repeated, emitted by an internal or external actor to the company or to its environment is information. But Davis (1987) argues A set of data transformed under significant shape for the person who receives it, having a real value for its decisions and his actions. Consequently we cannot sum up information as mere message, but data is more appropriate when taking into account the richness of the information technology and communication used in enterprises to transmit sound, video, pictures and text. 2.1.1. The value of information *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 37 - Performance Can we assign a value to information? For Shanon (1949) the importance of transmitted information depends on its quantitative objective contents. The more an event appears as improbable, the more the information concerning this event becomes important, so defining the quality of information as its level of relevance. In his meaning theory of the information, Mc Kay (1969) establishes that the information is what forms or transforms the representation, so positioning in a systematic vision. He demonstrates that the treatment of a set of data allows to create the information, and thus to reduce the uncertainty of the decision-maker. What do we learn from the above-mentioned authors? Information is an interpretation of a configuration of signs or data for which members of an organization are accountable. Outside the organization, which is the context, the set of data or signs would have any significance. Information will have a value when it is configured in a context or environment where members of this environment will be able to give an interpretation which is the meaning and its value. Figure 2.0 2.1.2. Information as a good *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 38 - Performance Shapiro & Varian (1999) define information as a good and a particular product. According to them, Information has several unique characteristics, which render it difficult to valuate. Information is an unusual good in many aspects - production, distribution, cost, and consumption. Information is both an end product and an instrument or input into the production of other goods, decisions and information. It is expensive to produce and cheap to reproduce (Bates 1989; Shapiro and Varian 1999). In fact, distribution is accomplished mainly by reproduction or copying. Different media can distribute the same content, and the price is often derived from the medium rather than from the value delivered by the content itself. In point of fact, people consume information both by sharing and by purchasing, while most other goods are consumed via purchasing only. The cost of information can be either direct or indirect. The quest for the value of information is further complicated by the fact that information is an experience good, meaning that its value is revealed only after consumption (Shapiro and Varian 1999; Van Alstyne 1999). Much research has been done in order to set a calculation method to information (Repos, 1995), however we consensually accept two approaches: the exchange value and the utility value. As a result, the value of information depends on its usage value, though it has not an absolute value. *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 39 - Performance Figure 2.1 Information concept The figure 2.1 summarizes the different items assigned to information in a particular context in a certain environment (internal and external) transforming or configuring the data (sign, message, good, etc) in order having a meaning and a value for the actors exchanging within and through the organization. In this research the term information will refer to management context, we intend by the word information "A set of new or repeated data, emitted by an internal or external actor, to the organization or to its environment, allowing her to modify her vision of the environment to make a decision. As a result information is considered as major resource for a strategic purpose in an organizational environment". *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 40 - Performance 2.1.3. The information system concepts Before defining information system, since we have already described Information, it might help to define System. The understanding of System is a set of elements, which interact between them by exchanging internal and external information with the support of communications. (BOUZE, 1983). Literature does not provide a unique definition of the information system concept, definitions are numerous and different. Le Moigne (1990), for instance, defines the information system as an interface between the production system and the pilot system. Lesca and Lesca (1995) emphasize that the information system connects organization, technology and humans with the objective to treat the information with regard to the goals of the enterprise. The authors stress the idea of a dedication of the information system as a tool to the service of the organization and of its goals. On the other hand Earl (1989) and Courbon (1993) define four functions of the information system: seizing, memorizing, treating and communicating. Reix (1995) completes this definition by adding that the objective of the information system is to treat information to offer a more relevant representation of the reality, to reduce the limited rationality (Davis, 1987) and award two types of objectives to information system: Supplying the management (information piloting system) with information and treating the information to realize activities of the company (information production system). As a result, Reix (1995) defines the system information as set of organized resources: material, software, staff, data, and procedures allowing acquiring, treating, storing, communicating information through the organization. 2.1.4. How we perceive information system today Today this expression refers mostly to computer tools, the technical core of the system. Regarding technological progress, information system inevitably means computer support. Indeed, the appearance of the Information system concept is *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 41 - Performance not without link with the headways of the technology in information integrators systems (i.e. architectures client / server, Intranet, internet, distributed data bases). Additionally, this definition also includes elements outside the computer tool such as the users, the suppliers and the various sources of information, networks and communication protocols, etc., for without these elements, the Information system would not be dynamic. More importantly, in an information system, information is above all digital whether it is text, sound, images or video. It can be structured (a database) or amorphous (set of files stored in hard disk). According to Reix`s definition, we name information system in this research A computer based system in which an articulated set of resources like human, technologies, rules and procedures permits to acquire, to store, to treat and to distribute information in the aim to help people or a group of people in decision making process. 2.1.5. Characteristics of information system (IS) Every information system is characterized by the following elements (Leitzelman & Dou, 1998) within an organization: A source of information, in which is the original information, A user who asks question, An interrogation module which interprets the question of the user, looks for the information and restores the results, A network and communication protocol, which allows the connection between the elements of the system. In accordance with Quinio (1997) an information system may be: *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 42 - Performance a) Dynamic when being organized around a set of resources (technical, organizational and human). b) An open system, which interacts with the upper-system of the organization. The system of information appears as a sub-system and is defined as a system, which treats the information in agreement with the objectives of the organization. c) Active and adaptive: As sub-system of the organization system, the information system is organized, but must also be adaptive. Regarding the objectives of the organization, the information system is opened to the environment and interacts with it. d) Controlled and evaluated when being "piloted" to organize it`s functioning, insure its development and the necessary corrections. The use of information technology is crucial at this step. 2.1.6. Typology of information system (IS) Zardet (1986) suggests three kinds of information system: 1. Stimulating type: The information system works without major break, it starts with the process of acquiring, passing by the treatment and the circulation of information to get at the process of decision-making. It is the most complete system because it leads to decision-making process and stimulates a decisive action (Voyant, 1997). 2. Transformational type: The second allows not only the circulation of information but its understanding and its transformation (interpretation) *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 43 - Performance in the environmental context of the organization by appealing to the cognitive capacity of the user. 3. Basic informational type: The last one is the basic type, which allows the acquisition, the treatment, the circulation and the reception of the information. This type does not stimulate any decisive action and in turn engender any economic product for the organization. Figure 2.2 Typology of Information System 2.1.7. Information in a decision making process According to H. A. Simon (1960) we define decision-making process as identification and resolution of problems faced by organization. But the information generated by a system is encountering the limited rationality of the *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 44 - Performance user (human) because of its cognitive character, which is going beyond organizational procedures. As a result researchers establish that information does not automatically lead to rational decision (Emery & Trist, 1995; Le Moigne, 1973, 1979; Gorry & Scott-Morton, 1971; Boland & Hirschheim, 1987; Felman & March, 1991; Silver, 1991; Boland, 1994). As studied above, its polysemic nature subjects information to a variety of interpretation that will make the result of decision based on certain information a pure contingent. Bourre & Darson (1993) observe that information systems are under-utilized if we consider it as the principal step to decision. The intuition of human beings always drives him to select information not regarding the organization`s procedures but according to his preferences (Crozier & Friedberg, 1977). If information is important for the decision maker the question is what information do we talk about? 2.1.8. The value of information system (IS) Therefore, how must we consider an information system in an organization? Regarding the ambiguity which characterizes the connection between information and decision, it would not be rational to think that an information system whatsoever could provide relevant and absolute information to a decision maker (Ackoff, 1967; Le Moigne, 1974, 1986; Marmuse, 1992; Bartoli & Le Moigne, 1996). The numerous factors involved in the process and the complex environment of the organization virtualized by an information system and the above-mentioned issues make it a pure hazard. An information system, whether it is a database or electronic government system, is useful when being adaptive to its environment thus to the needs of the decision maker. This will guaranty to a certain degree the causation of the information to the result of decision. 2.2. E-government Systems *� Guyverson VERNOUS School of Science and Engineering AIU � 2007* The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public Administration - 45 - Performance 2.2.1 What is e-government? E-government which is an information system refers to the use of information technologies such as intranet, extranet, internet and other networking systems to establish a perfect availability of information and deliver electronic services to citizen and businesses (public) in order to transform the relations with these ___ and between/within its different agencies and organizations (WorldBanks; Howard, 2001; Backus, 2001). E-government is a client-oriented (according to NPM trend) or citizen-oriented approach toward efficiency and effectiveness. This definition may be considered simple minded when transposing the approach of the private sector (ecommerce) of the use of IT within the public administration without any critical observation � later we will discuss the flaws of the e- government idea. 2.2.2. The stages of e-government According to researchers and scholars, e-government may evolve from simple Internet presence to fully integrated government systems. So the use of the technologies and its dynamic trait condemn any IT system and organization IT based to change and grow. In this paper we will not question the stages; we will simply indicate them as listed by researchers (Gartner, 2000). But it is worth noting that the stages hereunder are not necessarily mutually exclusive or progressive, the determining factor will be the problem tackled by public managers and the needs of the citizens. 2.2.2.1. Informational s